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Marquis de Lafayette was a hero at Yorktown in October 1781. |
AS DAYLIGHT FADED in
Touring the United States since August, he had just come
That long-ago year was 1781. While Lafayette and his small army had tramped these roads in distant Virginia, George Washington planned to combine his army with a French expeditionary force and win the war for independence with an attack on New York.
A British defeat at Saratoga, in 1777, had encouraged France to openly support the Americans, and the war had expanded into a global conflict. With British resources drawn to several continents, the American war reached a stalemate. To break the impasse, the British initiated a Southern Campaign, expecting Loyalists there to rally to the king's colors.
In December 1778, an expeditionary force captured Savannah, Ga., a welcome success after Saratoga. After an initial failed attempt, the British took Charleston in May 1780, effectively eliminating organized resistance in South Carolina.
Washington had no option but to hurry additional troops south. Unfortunately, they were commanded by Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates, who bungled his way into battle against Gen. Charles Cornwallis near Camden, S.C. Although numerically superior, Gates was no match for the experienced Cornwallis, and the American force was routed.
Further news from New York left the Americans reeling. In September 1780, Benedict Arnold escaped to British lines after his plan to deliver West Point, a stronghold on the Hudson River, was discovered.
Washington sent Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene south as the new commander. Greene passed through Richmond on Nov. 1, accompanied by the inspector general of the Continental Army, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben. As he continued to the Carolinas, Greene asked von Steuben to remain in Virginia, to forward troops and supplies.
In October 1780, before Greene took charge of the southern army, local militia had already won a solid victory at King's Mountain, S.C. In January 1781, Brig. Gen. Daniel Morgan mustered a force and defeated a British column at a place in South Carolina called Cowpens.
Washington welcomed the good news, but still faced enormous challenges. The winter encampment at Morristown, N.J., had become more miserable than Valley Forge had been. By the beginning of the year, his Continentals were near mutiny. The French expeditionary forces had landed, but their commander, Lt. Gen. Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de Rochambeau, made it clear they would not fight as proxies for the Americans.
In December 1780, the British gave Benedict Arnold his first assignment as a turncoat. The Royal Navy took him and a Loyalist force to Portsmouth. From there, Arnold moved his 1,200 men up the James River to Richmond, which had become the state capital in 1779, when British forays made Williamsburg too vulnerable.
The Virginia Assembly wanted Washington to return and defend his native state, but he would not be distracted from the main effort at New York. He ordered Lafayette south to challenge Arnold.
In 1781, Lafayette was a 24-year-old French nobleman caught up in what he had come to recognize as a profound political movement. He took three battalions of light infantry, some artillery and some cavalry, about 1,200 men, and marched out of New Jersey to Maryland. He was to be reinforced by 1,200 French troops and elements of the French navy, but he soon found that the Royal Navy had gained control of the Chesapeake Bay. His expedition had effectively ended.
Lafayette planned to take his troops back to New York, but events were gaining momentum elsewhere. British control of the Chesapeake ensured that Virginia could be readily reinforced. In North Carolina, a hard-fought battle at Guilford Court House led Cornwallis to decide that the way to achieve victory in the South was to abandon the Carolinas and fight the decisive battle in Virginia.
On Washington's orders, Lafayette's columns swung south. By April 21, they had crossed the Potomac River into Virginia. Arriving in Fredericksburg on April 25, Lafayette issued the troops three days' rations and ordered them to be ready to depart in the morning. The combined British and Loyalist forces were on the move, and Lafayette, to his enduring credit, raced his force south.
As the British swept toward the James River, Lafayette's troops hurried into Richmond. The British reached Manchester and were astonished to find they faced Continental troops. Finding their crossing contested, they burned some warehouses and fell back to await Cornwallis at Petersburg.
Lafayette knew he had gained only a temporary respite. The British plan was to disrupt supplies, and they had a decided advantage. Factories in Alexandria, Fredericksburg, Richmond and Petersburg were within reach of hostile maritime forces. Critical ironworks in Falmouth and Fredericksburg could not be broken down and relocated.
Gov. Thomas Jefferson informed Lafayette that he had called out the militia, but could not say how many citizens would respond. Lafayette received authorization to take horses, but was restricted from taking stallions, brood mares or geldings over a certain value.
On May 20, Cornwallis linked up with Arnold at Petersburg and assumed command of British forces in Virginia. On May 24, he marched out at the head of a force that numbered more than 7,000 men. Lafayette had approximately 1,000 Continental troops, 2,000 militia and the remnants of a unit of dragoons (approximately 40 men). He sorely missed Light Horse Harry Lee's cavalry, then in North Carolina.
Virginia's roads were poor, but there were many of them, and the lack of mounted troops left him exposed. When Cornwallis headed north, his columns would not be stopped by anything Lafayette could put in his way. The Virginia Assembly fled Richmond and headed for Charlottesville.
The Virginia government might have been mobile, but military supply depots and ironworks at Fredericksburg were not. Lafayette cautiously moved north so reinforcements (Gen. Anthony Wayne and his Pennsylvania regiments) would be able to link up with him. Loyalist cavalry under Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton followed closely, putting pressure on the Americans as well as snapping up the horses that Lafayette had been constrained from impressing.
The state government's policy of protecting the expensive horseflesh of its citizens now worked to the advantage of the invaders. The Loyalist cavalry gathered and rode the best horses that Virginia had to offer. Lafayette's pitiful cavalry force left him exposed while British horse soldiers swarmed over the landscape.
The British pressed on and Lafayette moved west, risking Tarleton's dashing into Fredericksburg but keeping within reach of Wayne and his reinforcements. By June 1, Cornwallis was at the North Anna River, considering whether to pursue the rebel forces deeper into the interior--a strategy that had not worked very well in the Carolinas. If he became too far removed from his supply base, even a victory would require the British force to retreat.
His other option was to head back to the coast. If he could establish a naval station in Virginia, the Royal Navy would continue to deny the French access to the Chesapeake Bay.
In Spotsylvania County, Lafayette slowed his march. From Mattaponi Church, he moved up the Po River to Corbin's Bridge. Over the next two days, Lafayette continued north in short marches and crossed the Rapidan River at Eley's Ford on June 4. Couriers between Lafayette and Wayne were keeping each commander apprised of the other's position.
Learning that Wayne was nearby, Lafayette marched through Culpeper County to Raccoon Ford, toward the British. On June 6, he crossed to the south side of the Rapidan. At the North Anna River, Cornwallis continued to disrupt American logistics. He dispatched his Queen's Rangers to destroy the rebel supply depot at Point of Fork. He sent Tarleton and the British Legion to Charlottesville, to disrupt the state government.
Both raids were reasonably successful. The Rangers destroyed critical supplies, and Tarleton's hard-riding troops pounded into Charlottesville on June 4. The horse soldiers captured seven members of the Virginia Assembly, while a detachment headed to Monticello to grab the governor. Thomas Jefferson fled down one side of his mountain as Loyalist dragoons rode up the other.
Wayne's Pennsylvanians finally joined Lafayette's Virginia army on June 10. The addition of Wayne's 1,000 Continentals gave Lafayette all the encouragement he needed to move aggressively against the Loyalist marauders. He immediately advanced to the South Anna River, near Boswell's Bridge and Tavern in Louisa County.
By June 13, Lafayette and his army were in position near Mechum Creek, on the Rivanna River. For the second time in six weeks, the young Frenchman's fast columns had spoiled British designs. First, he had occupied Richmond and forced Arnold to retreat. Now, he had gained a position on Tarleton's flank.
Tarleton prudently pulled back and joined Cornwallis, who was on the James River just downstream from its confluence with the Rivanna. Though checked by Lafayette, Cornwallis had wreaked his destruction and so decided to concentrate his forces on the Virginia Peninsula.
Although probably no one realized it at the time, Cornwallis' decision to move east marked the turning point of the campaign. The main British army in Virginia would not challenge the Americans for control of the state's interior.
In the aftermath of Tarleton's raid on Charlottesville, the shaken remnants of the Virginia Assembly elected Thomas Nelson governor. Nelson would stand in sharp contrast to Thomas Jefferson. While Nelson commanded troops in the field, Jefferson studiously avoided military service. A somewhat inept Gov. Jefferson had done very little to assist an active campaign within his jurisdiction. In comparison, Nelson pursued aggressive policies to supply the American armies in Virginia, even assuming crushing personal debts when the state government could not obtain credit.
Cornwallis marched out of Richmond on June 21, and Lafayette moved forward to attack him on the road to Williamsburg. His opportunities came at Spencer's Tavern and again at Green Spring, but the British Regulars were masters of their craft and held their own. In Portsmouth, Cornwallis received dispatches directing him to establish a base to maintain control of the Chesapeake.
He eventually settled on Yorktown, where the anchorage was deep and would provide a place for the West Indies squadron to ride out the hurricane season. The British also occupied Gloucester Point, which would provide access to the agriculturally rich Northern Neck.
George Washington had begun to pay more attention to Virginia as he encountered difficulty in devising a plan to take New York. The French fleet held the potential to tip the scales. All Washington had to do was withdraw from New York without letting Clinton find out what was going on, march his troops 450 miles to Virginia, and then defeat the British there in less than two months, since the French fleet had indicated it would remain on station only until Oct. 15.
With potential control of the sea, George Washington had the initiative. On Aug. 19, 2,500 American Continentals and 4,000 French Regulars were in motion. In early September, Adm. de Grasse landed 3,100 French soldiers from the West Indies garrison at Jamestown, boosting Lafayette's force considerably and putting him in a position to actually prevent a breakout.
The aggressive de Grasse soon stood out to sea, to take on the British fleet that had arrived to try to re-establish contact with Cornwallis.
The sea battle that ensued on Sept. 5 resulted in the Royal Navy's effectively abandoning its Chesapeake station. A week later, Washington and Rochambeau were in Williamsburg.
By Sept. 26, French ships had picked up the French and American soldiers who had marched down to Maryland ports from New York, and ferried them down the Chesapeake to the Peninsula. The French supply wagons proceeded overland, making their way through Falmouth and across the Falmouth ford on Sept. 29, arriving in Williamsburg by Oct. 7.
When everything was on hand, French engineers conducted a formal siege of the Yorktown defenses, using techniques that had not changed appreciably since the Middle Ages. Cornwallis' very isolated British army surrendered Oct. 19.
Lafayette's hard marching, aggressive tactics and constant stream of intelligence to the army commander had resulted in a strategic opportunity that the astute George Washington had quickly seized. The campaign that effectively ended the American Revolution had actually begun in April, when the young Frenchman had marched his division of light infantry into Virginia.
ERIK F. NELSON is senior planner for the city of Fredericksburg. Send e-mail to his attention to
Email: gwoolf@freelancestar.com.
The size of American Continental forces always appeared to be too small to confront well-trained and -supplied British and Loyalist troops, but Revolutionary armies had a method. Continental formations typically provided the core around which local militia could turn out and coalesce. The system appears cumbersome, but actually worked reasonably well and clearly caused severe problems for Cornwallis in North and South Carolina. This success was fortuitous, because the Americans did not have the resources to do better. This system also required American commanders to be constantly attuned to public appearances, which could either deter or encourage militia recruiting. When Cornwallis' columns pursued Lafayette toward the Rappahannock River, for instance, the Frenchman kept just out of reach. When the British paused, he turned to confront them. When Cornwallis eventually withdrew to the east, Lafayette pursued closely. He marched his forces on several roads so that it would appear he had more men than he did. He also kept his overnight camps spread out, the glow of campfires over a wide expanse further suggesting a large American force. As Cornwallis moved down the Peninsula toward Yorktown, Lafayette sought action as opportunity dictated. Sharp engagements at Spencer's Tavern and Green Spring reassured the local population that the American force would fight. There is no doubt that Lafayette's leadership inspired confidence. On the road to Yorktown, his force attracted hundreds of militiamen. A study of Revolutionary War claims shows just how involved was the community through which the armies passed. There were those who hid their horses and wagons from patriot forces, but others supplied the cause as best they could. Able-bodied men mustered as militia, with weapons in hand. Farmers, tavern keepers and planters provided food and equipment that the Revolutionary government could not. Women stitched uniforms and provided food from their own kitchens. Many of the people who turned out in 1824 to welcome the man they still affectionately called "marquis" had contributed in some measure to the success of his arms in 1781. --Erik F. Nelson |
In May 1780, a combined British force commanded by Sir Henry Clinton captured Charleston, S.C. More than 6,600 American troops, including 750 Virginia Continentals and nearly 700 Virginia militia, marched into captivity. Maj. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln, who had been sent to command the southern army in 1778, would eventually be exchanged and rejoin Washington's army. The commander of the Virginia Line, Brig. Gen. William Woodford of Caroline County, would die as a prisoner of war before the end of the year. The Virginia Line had disappeared into captivity, and the Virginia Assembly worked to rebuild its state forces. It persuaded Brig. Gen. George Weedon to return to duty and accept command of the Virginia militia. Weedon had already served in Washington's army. He had commanded the 3rd Virginia Regiment after Hugh Mercer was killed at Princeton, in 1777, but had been granted permission to return to his Fredericksburg home in 1778. He was still there when Virginia officers met in 1780 to reorganize and recruit a new force. He would remain in Fredericksburg to recruit militia as well as protect the iron industries on the Rappahannock River. When Nathanael Greene traveled south, to take command of American forces in the Carolinas, he left the inspector general of the Continental Army, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, in Virginia to forward supplies. Von Steuben had been a Prussian officer whose service included a staff assignment at the headquarters of Frederick the Great. This technical experience on a general staff (a concept not yet familiar to the French and American armies) appears to have prepared this officer for his remarkable contribution in developing the professionalism of the American colonials. In addition to his logistical duties, von Steuben undertook to train the new recruits who aspired to be Continental soldiers. Von Steuben trained his troops at Point of Fork, which also served as a supply depot. Despite British raids, von Steuben diligently drilled his charges and marched them as new soldiers to join Lafayette on June 19, 1781. Cornwallis occupied Richmond at the time, but would soon move east. The arrival of 450 trained Virginia troops had symbolic as well as practical value. The reconstituted Virginia Line would be represented at Yorktown. The commander of the Virginia Line at Charleston, Maj. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln, would join them, leading the American column from New Jersey to the Chesapeake Bay, 16 months after his capture at Charleston. --Erik F. Nelson |
